English and Vietnamese Adjective Phrases.

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1. Rationale. Nowadays, English is the most widely used in the world and plays an important role together with the development of society and technologies. English is not only the effective means of communication but also show its progressive effects in many aspects of life. Practically, study on the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures English and Vietnamese has been one of my concerns. It is clear that there are many differences between the two languages of as those in grammar, lexicology, translation, phonetic and so on.However there still exist plenty of similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese that can be demonstrated contrastive analysis. When choosing the subject for the assignment, I put much attention to adjective phrases because this field may make me confused. I hope that this study help me as well as other learners will understand adjective phrases in English and Vietnamese thoroughly. 2. Aims of the s tudy. My research aims at. : + Giving theoretical background of English and Vietnamese adjective phrases. Analyzing of the word order in English adjective with Vietnamese equivalence + Presenting some difficulties faced by Vietnamese learners of English in adjective phrases and 3. Scope of the study. During the study process, I have been attracted by adjective phrases. Because of time allowance and knowledge, I cannot cover all its constructions, functions, etc. but only focus on orders, and I introduce some similarities and differences of adjective phrases between English and Vietnamese for the research. PART B: DEVELOPMENT I. Literature Review I. 1.Definition of Adjective phrase : I. 1. 1. English Adjective phrase According to Quirk et al. (57) and Greenbaunm (32), an adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective such as big or happy as its head. Within the adjectives phrase, the adjective may be pre-modified (too careful) or post-modified (afraid of ghost ) or both of premodifed and post modified (too cold to swim, extremely afraid of ghost). The structure of the typical adjective phrase is shown at the following figure. The parenthesis indicate the optional elements. [pic] Eg. I am tired head The room is full of smoke ead postmod. The bus is very slow to set off premod. head postmod. I. 1. 1. Vietnamese Adjective phrase According to Di? p Quang Ban (5) and Nguy? n Tai C? n (10), a Vietnamese adjective phrase is a phrase in which there is an adjective as a head. For example: t? t, v? n r? t t? t, r? t t? t, t? t qua. Like English adjectives, Vietnamese adjectives have the ability to combine with modifiers which are divided into two parts: modifiers preceding the head are called premodifiers, whereas those following the head are called premodifiers.In Vietnamese adjective phrases, some modifiers can appear both before and after the head. eg. xinh qua, qua xinh, c? c k? t? t, t? t c? c k?. Like the structure of noun phrases and verb phrases, the full constru ction of an adjective phrase consists of three components : a head, premodifier, and postmodifer and the short construction may consist of one component (a head) or two components (a head and premodifier or a head and postmodifier). The structure of the typical Vietnamese adjective phrase is in the following figure: premodifier(s) + head + postmodifier(s) I. 2.Adjective phrases and their orders I. 2. 1. Word order through syntactic functions of English adjective phrases According to Greenbaum (32) Adjective functions have two main functions: premodifier of a noun (attributive function) and subject predicative(subject predicative function). Eg. : – premodifier of a noun (attributive function): My cat is a very curious cat. – Subject predicative(subject predicative function). : My sister is very pretty Besides, There are some other functions of adjective phrase: – Object predicative function: They are going to paint their house pink Postmodifier of a pronoun : Sha ll we go to somewhere cool? – Postmodifier of a noun I don’t mean to make my wife sad – Nominal adjective: You should confuse the Chinese and the Japanese – Complement of a preposition he did not come back home till late last night. a. Word order in attribute function: – When they come before nouns, they occur in the following order: a (adjective) + b (noun) Eg. : Barack Obama is a extremely strict president a + b As the example shows, adjective phrases used in premodification are usually either one word phrase. When they come after nouns, they occur in the following order: b (noun) + a (adjective) Eg. : I am thirteen years old b + a Anyone intelligent can apply for the job b + a Barack Obama was the president elect. b + a b. Word order in predicative function In adjective phrase, an adjective not only occurs in attributive position, it can also appear in predicative position as subject complement after linking verbs like be, seem, appear, especial ly the verbs of sense taste, look, smell, etc. There is a copular relationship between subject and subject complement.The word order can be formalized as: a (subject) + b (linking verb) + c (adjective) Eg: The cake tastes sweet a + b + c Your perfume smells musky a + b + c That music sounds beautiful a + b + c She seems innocent a + b + c I. 2. 2. Word order through Syntactic functions of Vietnamese Adjective phrases a. Word order in Attributive function In Vietnamese adjective phrases, adjective in the attributive function often follow the noun they modify according to the order: a (noun) + b (adjective) (noun) + b (modifier) + c (adjective) a (noun) + c (adjective) + b (modifier) Eg. : Lan da nau c? a co ? y v? n cu? n hut toi = Her brown skin still attracts me Do la bu? i sang mai th? t d? p = That is a very nice early morning M? t chi? c vay l? a Ha Dong th? t d? p a + c + b + d M? t chi? c vay c? a Ha Dong b? ng l? a th? t d? p a + b + c + d M? t chi? c vay l? a th? t d? p c? a Ha Dong a + c + d + b M? t chi? c vay th? t d? p b? ng l? a c? Ha Dong a + d + c + b b. Word order in Predicative Function In Vietnamese adjective phrases, adjectives can directly function as predicative like verbs and the order can be formalised as : a (subject) + b (adjective) Eg. : B? phim th? t hay = The film was very interesting a + b When Vietnamese adjectives are in the predicative function, they can combine with the criteria of verbs. These are : + aspect-time maker: da, s? , t? ng, con, chua, etc. a (subject) + b (aspect-time maker) + c (head) Eg. : Co ngu? i toc da b? c pho + b + c II. Contrastive analysis of the word order in English adjective with Vietnamese equivalence It is obvious that both English and Vietnamese are analytical languages but they belong to different linguistic typologies. English is an inflectional and analytical language, whereas Vietnamese is a typical isolating and non-inflectional language. Therefore, apart from the similarities which do not caus e difficulties for learners, there are many differences between English and Vietnamese adjective phrases and their orders which can cause a variety of problems (errors and confusion) for learners.So, I will go deeply into the differences only and I think comparison might be the best way to identify the differences in the word order in English and Vietnamese adjective phrases. The following comparison will focus on the differences in : 1. Word order through syntactic functions of adjective phrases 2. Word order in premodification of adjective phrases 3. Word order through basic degrees of comparison II. 1. Word order through syntactic functions of adjective phrases In terms of main syntactic functions, most English and Vietnamese adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively.When adjective function attributively, they attribute to a quality or characteristic to what is denoted noun they modify. However, there are differences in the word order in the English and Vietname se adjective phrases through their syntactic functions. II. 1. 1. Word order in Attributive function |he is a very generous man |Anh ? y la m? t ngu? i hao phong | |Premod. + N |N + postmod. | |English is a rather difficult subject |Ti? ng Anh la m? t mon h? c kha kho |Premod. + N |N + postmod | From the above examples, it can be seen that both English and Vietnamese adjective functions as attribute of nouns, i. e. in attributive function, and they do not vary in form to agree with nouns. However, in the attributive function, English adjectives are used as premodifier of the noun, i. e. they come before the noun and appear between the determiner and the head of the noun phrase, whereas Vietnamese adjectives share the same character in that they often function as postmodifier, i. . they come after the noun. This is an important difference between the two languages. II. 1. 2Word order in predicative function The following examples show the difference in the word order of adjective ph rases in predicative function. Eg. : |Lan is very pretty and intelligent |Lan r? t xinh d? p va thong minh | |intensive V. Adj. + Adj. |Adj. + Adj. | |I don’t like living in the house because it is so |Toi khong thich s? ng trong ngoi nha do vi no b? n th? i va t? tam | |dirty and dark |Adj. + Adj. | |intensive V. Adj. + Adj. | | Apart from the attributive function, both English and Vietnamese adjectives can also be used predicatively. However, in English, when adjectives function as predicate they are used after an intensive verb â€Å"be†. Unlike English adjectives, Vietnamese adjectives play the predicative role directly without the linking verb â€Å"be†, i. e. in this function, Vietnamese adjectives are used to complete a sentence without any verbs or verb phrase.On the contrary, English adjectives can never function as verbs. In a sentence, they must follow a verb or a verb phrase. Moreover, when we translate from English into Vietnamese, we often meet a great number of disyllabic adjectives in Vietnamese. For example: xinh – xinh x? n (beautiful) kho – kho khan (difficult) ch? m – ch? m ch? p (slow) g? n – g? n gang (tidy) Generally, these disyllabic adjectives are formed from monosyllabic adjectives. Whether using monosyllabic or disyllabic depends on the habit of the Vietnamese Eg. : It is clear that he is quite slow Ro rang r? ng anh ? y kha ch? ch? p The weather makes me feel tired Th? i ti? t lam cho toi c? m th? y m? t m? i Furthermore, almost all Vietnamese monosyllabic adjectives can be used repeatedly to diminish the characteristics or levels. And these are typical features of Vietnamese adjectives which we do not find in English, for example; I felt cold (Toi c? m th? y lanh l? nh). Unlike English adjectives, in Vietnamese, some adjectives can combine with nouns â€Å" adjective + noun† to form the group of state adjectives to express the state of the characteristics. For example: My mo ther is a very careful and helpful womanM? c? a toi la m? t ngu? i ph? n? c? n th? n va nhi? t tinh These group of words have metaphoric meaning and can function as predicate and attribute. Here are some groups of words which are frequently used: nong tinh(hot-tempered), d? tinh(easy-going), t? t b? ng(knid-hearted), sang d? (clever), dung c? m (brave), etc. However, when the order of the groups of words is inverted, the metaphoric meaning disappears. Besides, in Vietnamese, the structure: â€Å"ma + adjectives† is used to strongly express the objection to an opinion, a remark just made by the speaker.This structure is only applied the peers or inferiors Eg. : Is Nam really friendly? Anh Nam ma than thi? n a? Generally, in languages, the positive sentences have the positive meaning, but in Vietnamese, when â€Å"ma† precedes adjectives in the sentence, the sentence has the negative meaning. The sentence â€Å"Anh Nam ma than thi? n a? † (Is Nam really friendly? ) means â€Å" Nam is not friendly† Another feature of Vietnamese adjectives which does not exist in English. That is, adjectives that precede â€Å"ra, len, di l? i† to form compound words or the group of words turn into verbs or have the character of verbs.In Vietnamese, the pattern: â€Å" adjectives + ra/len/ di/l? i† is used to express the development of character, state of things or people. When these words combine with adjectives, they often imply the presupposition and have the opposite content, for example when we say: â€Å" Lan d? o nay trong xinh ra†. It implies that Lan is more beautiful than before. In Vietnamese, the sense of positive uses the pattern: â€Å" adjective + ra/len†. In English, this structure is expressed by Intensive verb + adjective with the comparative meaning. |The earth is becoming warmer |Trai d? t dang nong d? len | |Vintensive + Adj |Adj + len | II. 1. 3. Word order in premodification of adjective phrases In th is section, we will discuss and analyse the differences in the word order in premodification of English and Vietnamese adjective phrases in detail through translation Eg. : |I am very glad to meet you |Toi r? t vui m? ng du? c g? p anh | |Intensi. + Adj |Intensi. Adj | |The tigers are very big and savage |Nh? ng con h? ?y to l? n va hung d? l? m | |Intensi. + Adj + adj |Adj + adj+ Intensi. | |She is very nervous before each exam |Co ? y da qua lo l? ng tru? c m? i k? thi | |Intensifier + Adj |Intensi. + Adj | |I am very remorseful and disappointed |Toi th? an h? n va th? t v? ng qua | |Intensifier + Adj + Adj |Adj + adj+ Intensi | Through the above examples, it should be noted both English and Vietnamese adjectives serve as the head of adjective phrases. Adjective phrases may contain only an adjective as the head, or two components; the head and premodifier or the head and postmodifier. Both English and Vietnamese adjectives are premodified chiefly by adverbs. Generally, premodi fiers are intensifiers.In English, they are very, extremely, rather, a bit, quite, etc. and in Vietnamese, they are r? t, r? t la, qua, th? t, c? c k? , hoi, etc. However, there are some differences in the order of the adverbs denoting degrees in the two languages. In English, these adverbs are followed by adjectives while in Vietnamese, they can occur both before and after adjectives. For instance, in Vietnamese, the adverbs : â€Å"r? t, qua, l? m† are used to indicate the highest degree of the personal or non-personal characteristics and they are the same meaning but different in usage.All of them can be translated as â€Å"very† besides, â€Å"qua, l? m† may be translated as â€Å"too† and â€Å"so† in English. These examples also show that the word order of adverbs of degree â€Å"very† in English and â€Å" r? t† â€Å" r? t la† in Vietnamese is the same, i. e. they occur before adjectives. However, â€Å"very† and â€Å"r? t† are often used in written language, whereas â€Å"r? t la† is often used in spoken language. But when â€Å"very† is used as â€Å" l? m’ or â€Å" qua†, the word order us absolutely different. â€Å"L? m† in Vietnamese must be preceded by adjectives and it is often used in spoken language.Contrary to â€Å"l? m†, the word â€Å"qua† may occur before or after adjectivels in spoken language to express an exclamation. Also â€Å"c? c k? , tuy? t, th? t† may occur before or after adjectives. However, the words â€Å" qua, c? c k? , tuy? t, th? t† often appear after adjectives, therefore, when they are used before adjectives, they are often used with the meaning of emphasis or assessment. Unlike English adjectives, Vietnamese adjectives can play the predicative role directly, so they can combine with the aspect-time criteria of the verbs such as da, dang, s? , v? n,c? con and it is a typical feature of V ietnamese. This combination expresses the relation between the characteristics and time. These characteristics are based on the sense of native speakers and they exist like the form of the state. In short, modifiers: da, dang, s? , v? n, c? , con not only express grammatical meaning but also the purpose of the statement and the relation between a speaker and reality. In Vietnamese, in certain situations of the sentence, these meanings will be distinguished. Eg. : |They were very successful |H? a r? t thanh cong | |Vintens. + Intensi. + Adj |time-maker + intens. + adj | |Our country is different now |D? t nu? c c? a chung ta da khac xua | |Vintens.. + Adj |time-maker + adj | |After the wedding, She is very happy |Sau l? cu? i, co ? dang r? t h? nh phuc | |Vintens. + Intensi. + Adj |time-maker + adj | |I hope that you will be comfortable |Toi hy v? ng la b? n s? c? m th? y tho? i mai | |Aux. + Vintens.. + Adj |time-maker + adj | |My wife was still angry |V? toi v? n con gi? | |Vinten s.. + Adv + adj |time-maker + adj | From these, we can see a very remarkable structural difference: In English, aspect-time categories are indicated by the forms of the verbs, whereas do not Vietnamese do not have the category of time and the meaning of the time is indicate by supporting words: da, dang, s? , v? n, c? , v? n con. In Vietnamese, the predicative function is expressed by the structures: â€Å"da/dang/s? /v? n/c? con/v? n c? /con c? + adjective†, but in English this function is expressed by different structures â€Å" intensive verb(past) + adjective† â€Å" intensive verb(present) + adjective†, â€Å"auxiliary + present participle+ adjective† â€Å" auxiliary + be + adjective†, â€Å" intensive verb + still + adjective†. II. 1. 4 Word order through basic degree of comparison Most adjectives in English and Vietnamese can take comparison. These are gradable adjectives and they have three degrees of comparison: – same degre e – higher degree – lower degree a. The â€Å"same degree† comparisonIn both English and Vietnamese, when we say two things or persons are equal, we use the adjective in the same degree. In english, we use the structure : as + adj + as, whereas in Vietnamese, we use some modifiers: â€Å"nhu†, â€Å"b? ng†, â€Å"tuong t? † after adjectives in the structure: adj + nhu/b? ng/tuong t?. For example: |My wife is not as beautiful as yours |V? toi khong xinh b? ng v? anh | |My house is as small as your office |Nha c? a toi ch? b? ng van phong c? anh thoi | |Nobody can understand me as much as my mother |Khong ai co th? hi? u toi nhu m? c? | b. The higher degree comparison In order to indicate the difference in the word order in the degrees of comparison. First I would give here some examples and their translation into Vietnamese. |Hanoi is much more beautiful than Hanoi was |Ha N? i ngay nay d? p hon nhi? u Ha N? i tru? c kia | |Health and happin ess are more important than money |S? c kho? va h? nh phuc quan tr? ng hon ti? n b? | |One of the worst diseases which mankind have is cancer |M? t trong nh? ng can b? nh nguy hi? m nh? t ma loai ngu? i ph? i ch? u la ung | | |thu | These examples show that in the higher degree of comparison, English adjectives change their forms. They are indicated by the inflection â€Å"er† or the premodifier â€Å"more† in the comparitive degrees of comparison. We also add the inflection â€Å"est† or the premodifier â€Å" most† to show the superlative degree.We have some specific rules when using â€Å"er†, â€Å"est†, â€Å"more† and â€Å"most†. In contrast, in Vietnamese, in both comparative and superlative degrees, modifiers always come after the adjective they modify and adjectives do not change their form in both cases c. The lower degree of comparison When we want to say a person or a thing has less of a quality then the other, w e use the comparison of the lower degree. In the lower degree, English adjectives take the modifier â€Å"less†¦.. then? or can be negated from the equality degree and the lowest degree can be denoted by adding the modifier â€Å" the least†.In the lower degree, on the other hand, Vietnamese adjectives take the modifier ‘kem hon† or negative words ‘khong b? ng† â€Å" Khong du? c nhu† and the lowest degree can be expressed by the words â€Å"kem nh? t† â€Å"it nh? t†. For example: |The film was less interesting than I expected |B? phim nay khong hay nhu toi mong d? i | |less + adj + than |khong + adj nhu | |This city is not as dangerous as others |thanh ph? nay khong nguy hi? nhu cac thanh ph? khac | |not + as + adj + as | | In Vietnamese, the relation between these modifiers is very complicated. For instance, we may consider â€Å"b? ng† opposite to â€Å"kem† and ‘ khong b? ng† may replaced by â⠂¬Å"kem†. The word ‘hon† may have the similar meaning as â€Å"b? ng† when it combines with â€Å"khong† (khong hon). For example: Khong co gi quy hon d? c l? p t? do (Nothing is more precious than independence and freedom) Di? m c? a anh ? y khong hon di? m toiDue to the complete semantics of these modifiers we do not have grammatical category relating to the meaning of degrees of comparison of Vietnamese adjectives. In short, in this chapter, we have discussed the major issues relating to the differences in the form, the word order through the syntactic function, the word order in premodification and basic degrees of comparison of English and Vietnamese adjectives. We can say the word order in Vietnamese phrases is much more complicated then that in English adjective phrases because in Vietnamese adjective phrases, more modifiers can occur both before and after the head adjective phrases.The striking difference between the English and Vietnamese adj ective phrases is in the word order through the attributive and predicative functions. Moreover, Vietnamese adjectives may appear with the modifiers showing aspect-time criteria of verbs which we do not find in English. Besides, in English. we clearly distinguish parts of speech: adjectives and adverbs with words denoting manner while in Vietnamese we have only one: adjectives. II. 2. Some students’ common mistakes in using adjective phrases English and Vietnamese are quite different languages, so it is impossible to avoid mistake when learners use adjective phrases.The following mistakes can be the most common ones: + Learners often put adjectives in the wrong order because of the influence of their mother tongue. As you know both English and Vietnamese adjectives are used to modify nouns, but English adjectives often precede the nouns they modify, whereas Vietnamese adjectives often follow the nouns they modify. That is the reason why Vietnamese learners use adjectives inco rrectly. + Vietnamese learners often confuse between adjectives which have the â€Å"-ed† and â€Å"-ing† : worried/worrying, excited/exciting, etc.They do not know when they have to use â€Å"-ed† adjectives, when they must use â€Å"-ing† ones. For example : a boring film† or â€Å"a bored film† PART C: CONCLUSION This study has analysed, compared the word order in English and Vietnamese adjective phrases. It has analysed the similarities and differences in the arrangement of the words in adjective phrases between two languages based on the basic grammatical structures. By examining the description and comparison of the word order in English adjective phrases with Vietnamese equivalents, this study has shown there are both similarities and differences in the two languages.The most typical similarity is in the structure premodifier + Adj + postmodifier shared by the two languages where the head of the adjective phrases is in the centre of th e phrase and around it there may be modifiers: premodifier and postmodifier, but they are optional. The basic differences in the word order in English and Vietnamese adjective phrases are likely to cause many problems in understanding, expressing ideas and translation. So much attention should be paid to the differences in teaching adjective phrases to Vietnamese learners. ——-The end——- REFERENCES 1. Aarts. F. & Aart,J. , (1982) English syntactic structures. Oxford: Pergamon Press 2. Alexander,L. G. (1992). Longman English Grammar. Essex:Longman 3. Ban, Diep Quang (1998) Ng? Phap ti? ng Vi? t. Ha N? i : Nha xu? t b? n Giao d? c 4. Fisiak,J. (1981) Contrastive analysis and language teacher. Oxford: Oxford Pergamon Institute of English 5. M? nh, Tr? n H? u. (2000). A guide to University grammar of English. Ha N? i: D? i h? c M?. 6. Quirk,R et al. (1973). A University Grammar of English. Essex: Longman ——————— – ADJECTIVE PHRA SE Pre-modifier(s) Adjective Postmodifier (s)

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Adaptive Social Networks - Research Paper Example to conduct an experiment on the development of a referral system. The referral system is to support interaction of agents with others by directing users to those agents who may provide the information they need. 1A research was done on an architecture that is fully distributed and has agents who maintain privacy and autonomy from its users. 2In 1997, Kautz and the group developed methods of graph analysis for referral systems where the person with the required information is found by use of referral chains. The informal person-to-person social networks are used to construct what is termed as the ‘referral chains of request. 3According to Bin Yu et al., the research conducted by Kautz et al. concentrated more on the problem of referral information generation at the expense of the dynamic aspects of referral systems. The aim of the research conducted by Bin Yu et al. was to study the dynamics of social structures which most referral systems studied. The agents in their architecture learn models of each other in terms of sociability and expertise. They described an adaptive social network for information access that is intended to be an accurate, dynamic and evolving multi agent system that can achieve the effect of informal social networks that exist in an organization or community. In it, there is a distinction between a user’s interest and their expertise. Each user is associated with a personal agent. This agent is the first to see the user’s queries. He/she then decides the contacts to which the queries are sent. The agent that receives the query then decides if it suits its user and lets them see it. Alternatively, the receiving agent can respond with referrals to other users. The receiving user or agent can also choose not to respond in any way and discard the query. A query basically consists of a query vector and the requester’s ID, email address and a limit on the number of

Impact of the environment to human behavior Essay

Impact of the environment to human behavior - Essay Example Environment is a vital component to the development of individuals’ behavior living in distinguished areas. People develop some traits through exposure to culture of the evolving world.This paper entails information concerning the basis of human behavior in various communities. Much of the information relates to that of Gladwell and Jean Twenge. The study further denotes the environmental theory of human behavior by Gladwell in relation to individuals having a better understanding of their real selves and environmental triggers.Finally, the study looks down to establish how individuals understand themselves and environmental triggers through the human behavioral theory. The Power of Context by Malcolm Gladwell In the power of context, Gladwell states the root of shaping behavior of individuals. The culture people grow in determines their (individuals) success in their lives1. It is clear that the development of individual behavior begins at the early ages. The environment of s everal individuals at a childhood level is the primary determinant of the behavior that they exhibit at adulthood stage. Gladwell asserts that what people in the community instill in the younger generation is significant in what they grow to be and believe. An army of one: me by Jean Twenge Twenge looks much into the modern generation and refers the generation to as Generation Y. â€Å"An army of one: me† is a slogan, which denotes individuals assertive character2.Individuals try to adopt such behaviors of present day activities and deviant techniques used by particular characters. For instance, some youths view some of the artists as their role models. This is of great impact in that such youths end up exhibiting odd actions (especially those done by the artists). This becomes difficult especially for parents aiming at imposing good morals in their children. Most of the individuals under this generation focus on their personal interests. The slogan helps individuals develop better ways of living with individuals from other societies. The relationship between the Power of Context and An army of one: me Both Gladwell and Twenge had several segments in common. This results from the subject of their main argument. For instance, both had a concern on the behavior of individuals in various societies. Secondly, they deepened their thoughts to the impact of the environment on the behavior of individuals. In addition, Gladwell and Twenge depicted the result of an environmental changed behavior. This involves a change in the way individuals show respect to others, undertake tasks, and have interest regarding their culture. Learning about human behavior and the environment is important for individuals to be assertive in order to avoid much effect caused by the environment. Gladwell’s environmental theory of human behavior The Tipping Point is the theory by Gladwell and has a concern on the effects of social media on the behavior of particular individuals. This involves such things as, television, internet access devices such as personal computers and laptops. Communication and access of information through internet access helps children learn about other cultures. As noted, the internet changes much of what people know about their culture. The internet use makes users to adjust to the desires of other individuals3 . This leads to a desire to practice some of what they see done by people from other communities. Children do what they have seen parents do and inhibit what other non-family members offer or suggest. Therefore, parents should ensure that their actions towards children are in a manner that will depict good manners. Behavior through politics depends on the reason why various people get involved in a political environment. This helps individuals to have a change in the way they approach or handle difficult situations. The behavior of individuals largely depends on the behavior of

Sport Scale Essay Example for Free

Sport Scale Essay ABSTRACT The primary purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motivation. Also, the new measure was employed to examine the relationship between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. One hundred sixty nine college students from two southeastern institutions participated in this study. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bivariate correlation, t test, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics. The Fan Motivation Scale (FMS), developed in this study, consisted of six components with 22 items. The number of items under every component range from 5 to 2 items (quality of the game 4 items, escape 5 items, boredom avoidance 5 items, social 3 items, entertainment 3 items, and sport atmosphere 2 items). In addition, two hypotheses were tested in the current study. The first hypothesis was that ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivation. The second hypothesis assumed that there was a difference between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. The results revealed the FMS is a reliable measure with an overall alpha score of 0.90. Significant differences were found between participants in the total FMS and some of the subscales based on gender and ethnicity. However, the outcomes of the samples examined in this study do not support the first hypothesis. Therefore, no significant relationship was found between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. Regarding the second hypothesis, a significant difference was found between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Sports have become an increasingly important part of our society. Sports fans represent a significant percentage of sport consumers, because 70 percent or more of Americans watch, read, or discuss sports at least once a day (Iso-Ahola Hatfield, 1986). From 1985 to 1998, attendance has significantly increased at the four major sports in the United States. Major League Baseball (MLB) had the largest increase in the number of people attending games (24. 2 million, a 50% increase), followed by professional basketball (10. 3 million, a 89% increase), professional football (5.7 million, a 40% increase), and professional hockey (5. 6 million, a 49% increase). The number of people attending college sporting events has also increased during this time period (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000). Additionally, more television programming time is being devoted to sporting events. The ESPN was the fifth highest ranked television network in 2000, in terms of revenue, it was estimated to be $2. 1 billion (McAvoy, 2000). With the increase of interest in sports has become an increased interest of sports fans as consumers. Sport teams and companies are very interested in attracting as many consumers as possible to purchase game tickets or products. Therefore, sport marketers should acknowledge the factors that drive fans to follow sport by attending, watching on television, or purchasing products. However, understanding the notion of sports fans is not simple because their attitudes and behaviors are not determined by a single motive or factor but rather occur for a variety of reasons (Mashiach, 1980). Statement of the Problem There has been a growing interest in the study of sport fan motivations in recent years to better understand fan behaviors (Bilyeu Wann, 2002; Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, Hirakawa, 2001; Funk, Mahony Ridinger, 2002; Funk, Ridinger, Moorman, 2003; Gantz, 1981; Kahle, Kambara, Rose, 1996; Lee, 2002; Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, Gladden, 2002; Pease Zhang, 2001; Trail James, 2001; Wann, 1995; Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn Gambouras, 1999; Wann, Brewer, 1 Royalty, 1999; Wann, Schrader Wilson, 1999). Some of these studies have introduced measures of different consumption motives of sport fans. In addition, researchers have examined the relationship between fan motivation and other variables such as team identification, involvement, gender, and race. The measures used in previous studies to assess fan motivations vary in length and number of components. However, some of the components are used in all or most scales such as the entertainment component, the family component, and the friends component. They also share very similar items with regard to similar components. Items used in most previous scales often begin with the words â€Å"I like†, â€Å"I enjoy†, or â€Å"I feel† which raises a validity issue for the measures because the aforementioned words represent satisfaction and attitude rather than motivation. Fan satisfaction relates to the happiness and pleasure associated with the outcome of a sporting event while fan attitude represents the opinion and feelings an individual has about a sport team or sporting event. On the other hand, sport fan motivation refers to the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, buy team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. The Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motives. Also, the new measure was utilized to examine the relationship between fan motivation and ethnic identity. The Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework of this study includes the discussion of two concepts. First, the Fan Motivation Scale and its content will be introduced. Second, the notion of ethnic identity and why it should be correlated with sport fan motivation will be presented. The prior research (Wann, 1995; Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, Hirakawa, 2001; Bilyeu Wann, 2002) identified various motives that could drive fans to attend sporting events. Some of these motives are related to personal needs (entertainment and financial 2 gain), social needs (bonding with family and group affiliation), and psychological needs (self-esteem and achievement). In attempt to measure the motives of sport fans, the researchers introduced different scales. These scales comprised different number of motives ranging from 7 motives with 16 items to 18 motives with 54 items. The length of some of the scales was not the only problem. The major concern for previous scales is in the content validity, the extent to which items used in the scale accurately represent fan motives. In fact, all previous scales included items that are more related to attitude and satisfaction then motivation. The reason for this problem is the lack of clear definition of sport fan motivation. The current study is going to view sport fan motivation as the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, purchase team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. In addition, this study will employ a review of related literature and the prior effort made on fan motivation scales to develop valid and reliable measures of sport fan motivation. The proposed Fan Motivation Scale (FMS) will measure six motives: social, entertainment, escape, aesthetic, psychological, and amotivation. The social motive assesses the extent to which individuals participate in sporting events as spectators because they desire to spend time with their families (Gantz, 1981; Wann, 1995). Also, to some individuals, group affiliation is an important motivation of being a sport fan. Sport spectating provides a fan with opportunities to share time with others who enjoy the same activities. A fan may want to keep contact with a group of fans and seek refuge from a feeling of alienation (Branscombe Wann, 1991; Smith, 1988; Wann, 1995). The entertainment motive includes items that represent the desire of some individuals to have a good time and enjoy the excitement associated with sporting events. Some fans might enjoy a sport because of its entertainment value. Sport spectating provides fans with leisure pastime activities similar to watching movies or television. One advantage of sport spectating is that few special skills, if any, are required (Zillmann, Bryant Sapolsky, 1989; Wann, 1995). The escape motive of sport fans assesses the desire of sport fans to escape or diverge from their everyday lives. Attending a sporting event gives many people an 3 opportunity to temporarily forget about their troubling, dissatisfying, or boring lives (Smith, 1988; Lever Wheeler, 1984; Wann, Schrader Wilson, 1999). The aesthetic motive of sport fans appeals to those that are motivated by the aesthetic value of the sport. Some fans enjoy sports because of the competition between highly skilled athletes. The beauty, grace, and other artistic characteristics make some people enjoy sporting events (Milne McDonald, 1999; Wann, 1995). The psychological motive is a factor that motivates sports fans and gives them a feeling of accomplishment and achievement when the fans’ favorite team or player is successful. Sports fans tend to associate themselves with a successful team or player in order to create and sustain a positive self-concept (Branscombe Wann, 1991; Milne McDonald, 1999; Sloan, 1989). Amotivation refers to the state of lacking an intention to act. When amotivated, individual’s action lacks intentionality and a sense of personal causation (Ryan Deci, 2000). Amotivation results from not valuing an activity (Ryan, 1995), not feeling competent to do it (Deci, 1975), or not believing it will yield a desired outcome (Seligman, 1975). Some individuals might go to sport events and watch sport games because they have nothing else to do, bored, and want to kill time. These types of reasons had been neglected in previous studies of sport fan motivation. As mentioned earlier, prior research has examined the relationship between fan motivations and other variables such as sport involvement, team identification, and some demographic factors of selected sport fans. However, the ethnic identity of sport fans has been ignored in the literature. It might be assumed by some researchers that the race factor is enough representation of an individual’s ethnic background. It is, however, only part of the concept. Ethnic identity is defined as â€Å"a process of coming to terms with one’s ethnic-racial membership group as a salient reference group† (Smith, 1991, p. 182). Smith (1991) defined an ethnic group as â€Å"a reference group called upon by people who share a common history and culture† (p. 181). According to Gordon (1985), culture influences our social standards, values, cognitions, social perceptions, attributions, feelings, and sources of motivation. Individuals develop their ethnic identity through their social interaction with others. Through their interactions they begin to view themselves as others view them 4 (Stryker, 1980). Ethnic identity is viewed as part of social identity and it was defined by Tajfel (1981) as â€Å"that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† (p.255). An ethnic group is composed of a number of individuals who share a sense of group identity based on their unique culture, which include values, morals, and various customs, as well as shared origins. In the larger society, ethnic groups tend to maintain a sense of peoplehood (Dublin, 1996; Kornblum Janowitz, 1974; Portes, 1996). Forty years ago, Tumin (1964) defined an ethnic group as â€Å"a social group which, within a large cultural and social system, claims or is accorded special status in terms of complexity of traits which it exhibits or is believed to exhibit† (p.123). Distinguishing between ethnic groups is not always simple. Some ethnic minorities, such as African Americans, may have obvious physical differences that set them apart from other ethnic groups within the United States, but many biracial individuals present an ambiguity because they belong to two or more ethnic groups, which makes ethnicity a subjective construct (Root, 1992). Studying ethnic identity is very important because it is the foundation for what an individual believes about himself or herself. Given the significance of ethnic identity, many researchers have been studying this construct. Phinney (1990) reviewed 70 studies of ethnic identity published between 1972 and 1990. She found that most of the studies have used one of three theoretical frameworks to examine ethnic identity. The first framework is the social identity theory which ethnic identity is considered a component of social identity. Social theory refers to the need for an individual to be a member of a group that provides him or her with a sense of belonging that contributes to a positive self-concept. The second framework is the acculturation prospective. The concept of acculturation refers to changes in the cultural attitudes, value, and behaviors that result from interactions between two distinct cultures (Berry, Trimble, Olmedo, 1986). These kinds of changes are normally the concern of a group of individuals, and how it relates to the dominant or host society. Ethnic identity can be an aspect of acculturation in which the focus is on the individuals and how they relate to their own group as a subgroup of the larger society (Phinney, 1990). The third framework is developmental framework, where ethnic identity is viewed as a process by which people construct their ethnicity. 5 Erikson (1968) indicated that identity is the outcome of a period of exploration and experimentation that normally takes place during adolescence and leads to a decision of commitment in various areas, such as occupation, and religion. This view of ethnic identity suggests age as a factor is strongly related to developing one’s ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). Phinney (1990) mentioned that most studies have focused on certain components of ethnic identity. These components include self-identification as a group member, a sense of belonging to the group, attitudes about one’s group membership, and ethnic involvement (social participation, cultural practices and attitudes). Self-identification represents the ethnic label that one uses for oneself. The ability of children to label themselves with the right ethnic group was the addressed in a study by Aboud (187). Another issue was the relationship between incorrect labeling and poor self-concept (Cross, 1978). Adults are expected to know their ethnicity but the issue is what label one chooses to use for himself or herself. However, some ethnic groups have a little choice in what ethnic title they can use for themselves often because of their distinctive skin color or culture (language, dresses, customs, etc. ) which distinguishes them from other groups. Additionally, some individuals have two or more ethnic backgrounds and they identify themselves as members of more than one group. Ethnic self-identification is an important but complex component of ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). The feeling of belonging to one’s own group is an important element of ethnic identity. Some researchers have tried to assess the sense of belonging by either asking people how strong was their relationship with their groups or how separate they feel from other groups (Driedger, 1976). Members of every ethnic group can have positive or negative attitudes toward their own group. Some of the positive attitudes related were pride in and pleasure, satisfaction, and contentment with one’s group (Phinney, 1990). Negative attitudes include dissatisfaction, displeasure, discontentment, and a desire to hide ones identity (Driedger, 1976). People who display no positive attitudes or express negative attitudes can be seen as denying their ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). In addition, the involvement in the social life and cultural practices of one’s ethnic group is considered a strong indicator of one’s ethnic identity. The social and cultural practices 6 that represent the involvement component include language, friendship, social organizations, religion, cultural traditions, and politics (Phinney, 1990). Phinney (1992) developed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) with the purpose of assessing ethnic identity among various ethnic groups. The scale was designed to measure three components of ethnic identity: affirmation and belonging, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic behaviors. Roberts, Phinney, Masse, Chen, Roberts, and Romero (1999) examined the validity of the MEIM and conducted factor analysis with a large sample. The outcomes suggest that the scale measures two components of ethnic identity: ethnic identity search and affirmation, belonging, and commitment. Ethnic identity search refers to a developmental and cognitive component. Affirmation, belonging, and commitment represent the affective component. However, the scale has been proven to be a valid and reliable measurement and it will be used in the context of this study. More discussion of the scale is provided in the method section. Researchers have indicated that positive relationships do exist between ethnic identity and self-esteem, self-concept, psychological well-being, achievement, and satisfaction (Phinney, 1992; Roberts et al. , 1999; Delworth, 1989). However, it is the purpose of this study to examine the relationship between ethnic identity and motivations of sport fans. According to Phinney (1990) some studies have used sport as a cultural item to measure ethnic identity. Pons, Laroche, Nyeck, and Perreault (2001) indicated that the choice of a particular sporting event represents a strong cultural meaning for the individual. Some ethnic groups tend to identify with a specific sport, for example, soccer in the Italian community and hockey among the French Canadian. Pons et al. , (2001) stated â€Å"ethnic groups do not all react to sporting events in the same way; they differ in the means and the pace of their integration into the host culture† (p.238). African American consumers tend to attend historically Black college/university sports more frequently than they did any other sport. The level of ethnic identification of African American fans has significant affect on their attendance frequency to historically Black college/university sports (Armstrong, 2002). Moreover, previous studies showed differences in motivation between African American and European American sport fans based on ethnicity (Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn, Gambouras, 1999; Bilyeu Wann, 2002; Armstrong, 2002). 7Ã'Ž Therefore, it is expected that there is a relationship between sport fans’ motivation and ethnic identity. Research Hypotheses H1: Ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivations. H2: There is a difference between African American and European American in their ethnic identity. Operational Definitions Ethnic Identity: â€Å"part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from his or her knowledge of membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† (Phinney, 1992, p.156). Sport fan: refers to someone who is enthusiastic about a particular sport team or athlete (Wann, 1995). Sport fan motivation: refers to the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, buy team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. Delimitations This study is delimitated to: 1. Investigate the ethnic identity and motivations of sport fans in general. For that reason, no specific group of fans (i. e. , basketball fans, football fans) was examined. 2. The student at Florida State University (FSU) and Florida Agriculture and Mechanical University (FAMU), therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to populations other than the population from which the sample was drawn. 8 Limitations This study is limited to the following: 1. The outcome of this study depends on the participants’ honesty and cooperation in answering the questions. 2. Due to the nature of this study as self-administrated surveys, the researcher’s access is limited to the classes gained via permission to attend and meet. Assumptions This study is based on the following assumptions: 1. The surveys used in this study are clear and understandable for the participants. 2. The participants will answer the questions honestly and accurately. 3. The surveys are valid and reliable. Significance of the Study The sport marketers are in a high competition within the sport industry and also with outside competitors. Young generations are attracted through technology to new types of entertainment such as computer/video games and the X-Games. â€Å"These new entertainment options have already attracted a significant amount of attention from the so -called X-generation† (Kwon Trail, 2003, p. 1). Therefore, sport marketers should be concern about the future of the sport industry. In order for sport marketers to maintain their consumer base and to attract young generation, they should explore and examine the consuming behavior of sport fans and the factors that might influence their behavior. According to Gramann and Allison (1999), â€Å"the increase in the ethnic diversity of North America is one of the most powerful demographic forces shaping U. S. and Canadian society† (p. 283). Therefore, studying ethnic identity as an important social characteristic of sport fans is important to sport marketers. The importance of studying ethnic groups among sport fans is reflected by the increasing percentage of minority participation in professional sport, especially African American. African American athletes represent 25 to 75 percent of athletes on the rosters for the three popular sports (baseball, basketball, football) (Gano-Overway Duda, 2001). 9 The goal of this study was to introduce a new measure of fan motivation which will assist practitioners in the sport industry to understanding the driving factors for sport fans to attend sporting events, support sport teams, or buy team/sport related products. Also, the relationship between motivations and ethnic identity of sport fans was examined. The outcome of the study should provide practitioners with valuable information to assist them in understanding the various motives of sport fans based on their ethnic identity. Therefore, sport marketers should be able to improve their plans and strategies to maintain their fan base and fulfill the desires for their target market. 10 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature on ethnic identity and motivation of sport fans. It should be noted that to date, no research has combined and analyzed the interaction of the two identified variables. As such, the first section of this chapter focuses on the research that has been done on the ethnic identity of sport fans. The second section discusses motives of sport fans as well as scales that have been used to assess these motives. Ethnic Identity and Sport Fans Ethnicity as social and cultural characteristic of sport fans has been ignored in the literature although the race factor, which is the physical aspect of ethnicity, has been utilized for comparison between ethnic groups. However, Armstrong (2002) examined the influence of ethnic identification on Black consumers’ attendance at historically Black college/university (HBCU) sports. To assess ethnic identification, Armstrong used a self-report measure in which participants were asked to identify their ethnic group based on ethnic categories (Black/African American, Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and â€Å"other†) and to rate the intensity of their identification with their ethnic group on a scale from 1 (weak) to 5 (very strong). The hypothesis was that the identification of Black consumers with their ethnic group would have a significant influence on their attendance frequency at HBCU sport events. The findings offered support for the hypothesis indicating a positive relationship between ethnic identification and attendance frequency. In another study, Armstrong (2000) examined the influence of ethnic identification on African American students’ processing of persuasive sport communications (i. e. , advertisement, promotional messages, developmental campaigns, and announcements). The ethnic identification of the respondents was measured using a 13-item scale developed by Whittler, Calatone, and Young (1991). The scale assesses two major factors of ethnic identification (cross-race attraction and political and social 11 relations among Blacks). The outcome of the study revealed that ethnic identification has an effect on participants’ reaction to racial heuristics in the communication. African American consumers are more likely to have a positive reaction to a persuasive communication if the message were culturally relevant and delivered by a Black spokesperson. Pons et al. (2001) looked at the impact ethnic identity could have on the consumption behavior and orientation of sport consumers. They measured language (3 items), religion (3 items), and social participation with one’s own ethnic group (6 items) as three dimensions of ethnic identity. The orientation of sport consumers has three dimensions. The first dimension refers to sporting events as a provider of sensations in which consumers have an emotional attachment to the event or the product. The second dimension represents individuals’ need to understand the sporting event, which lead to better appreciation for the event. The third dimension of orientation toward sporting event refers to the socialization opportunities presented for sport consumers. The consumption behaviors include purchase of sporting good, tickets, and time devoted to sporting events. The results offered support for the idea that ethnic identity has a positive impact on the consumption and orientation of sport consumers. In regard to the race of sport consumers as part of their ethnicity, researchers have found a difference between Blacks and Whites concerning their sport involvement (Spreitzer Snyder, 1990). Sport involvement included seven dimensions â€Å"watching sports on television, listening to sport on the radio, reading the sport pages of the newspaper, watching/listening to sports news on radio/television, reading sports books, reading sports magazines, and talking about sports with friends† (Spreitzer Snyder, 1990, p. 51). The findings revealed significant effect of race on sport involvement regardless of respondents’ social background characteristics (i. e. , age, sex, education, income, town size). Blacks tend to be more involved in sport than Whites. The authors argued that the findings reflect a distinctive subculture within the black community. Rudman (1986) examined the relationship between race, social structure, and sport orientations. The main goal of the study was to see whether factors that affect sport orientations are race-dependant. The results showed Blacks to be more likely than Whites to become vicariously involved in sport outcomes and to incorporate sport into their daily 12 lives. Based on the overall analyses, the author argued that social and economic conditions provide a better explanation of differences in sport orientations. He used the term â€Å"culture of poverty† to indicate that socioeconomic positions are more likely to make boor blacks and boor whites see sport as an opportunity to enhance social prestige and economic position. At the college level, Armstrong (2001) examined ethnic minority students’ consumption of college sport events. The ethnic minorities included African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, and â€Å"Others†. She looked at the degree of ethnic minority students’ interest in sport spectating, the frequency in which they attend university sponsored sport events, and the factors that influence their decision to attend campus sport events. Eight factors were tested to see their influence on the students’ attendance. The factors are the price of the tickets, academic commitment, significant others, friends, watching the event on television, the option to spend money on other things, not knowing when tickets are available, the quality of the opponent. The factors identified had no significant influence on students’ attendance. The findings indicate that ethnic minority students generally had a favorable attitude towards sport spectating. However, about 44% of the student stated that they never attend a campus sport event, 41% stated that they seldom attended, and 15% have attended often. The author contended that minority students had a favorable attitude toward sport spectating but they never or seldom attend sport events on campus because they view these events as directed to a specific group (i.e. , dominant ethnic group). For minority students to be motivated to attend, the sport event has to be socially and culturally relevant to the students’ ethnic background. In professional sport, Zhang, Pease, Hui, Michaud (1995) and Zhang, Pease, Smith, Lee, Lam, Jambor (1997) indicated that factors such as game promotions, amenities, and schedule convenience influenced ethnic minorities’ attendance differently and more significantly than they did Whites’. Therefore, sport marketers should emphasize the sociocultural factors (i. e., offering different ethnic foods at the concession stands, playing different ethnic music, making announcement in different languages) in promoting sport consumption of ethnic minority consumers (Armstrong, 2001; Hofacre Burman, 1992; McCarthy Stillman, 1998). 13 In a direct connection to the current investigation, previous studies have found differences on the motivations of sport fans based on ethnicity. Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn, Gambouras (1999) investigated the relationship between sport fans’ motivation and race. A sample of 65 Euro-Americans and 32 African Americans completed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). The SFMS, developed by Wann (1995), includes eight motivational factors (eustress, self-esteem benefit, diversion from everyday life, entertainment value, economic value, aesthetic value, need for affiliation, and family needs). The findings indicated that Euro-Americans reported higher motivation than African Americans. The authors argued that certain motives might be applicable to only a subset of races. In a recent study, Bilyeu and Wann (2002) examined the racial differences in sport fan motivation between African Americans and European Americans. First, 50 African American participants completed a demographic questionnaire and an interview with the researcher to discuss their motives for being a sport fan. Second, the motives discovered from the interviews were sent to African American psychologists and sociologists for validation. Third, the new motives were added to the SFMS, then the African American and European American participants were asked to complete the SFMS. The findings suggested that three new factors be added to the SFMS: â€Å"representation (e. g. , people of the same background), similarity (e. g., people they have things in common with), and support/perceived greater equality (e. g. , people they want to succeed)† (Bilyeu Wann, 2002, p. 93). Armstrong (2002) indicated that previous investigations of motivation for sport consumption were not applicable to Black consumers because the samples used in these investigations were predominantly White. Therefore, she added a cultural affiliation motive to the SFMS, developed by Wann (1995), and administered it to a sample of only Black consumers of sport. The findings supported the hypotheses that cultural affiliation is a viable motive for Black’s sport consumption. In addition, the factor structure of the SFMS with the inclusion of the cultural affiliation motive differed from previous studies (Wann, 1995; Wann, Schrader, Wilson, 1999). Therefore, the Black Consumer’ Sport Motivation Scale (BCSMS) was introduced including the following factors: eustress, group recreation, aesthetics, cultural affiliation, group entertainment, escape, and 14 personal (economic/psychological) investment. At the conclusion of the study, the author stated, â€Å"behaviors and motives related to sport consumption may also be influenced by the social and psychological manifestations of culture† (Armstrong, 2002, p.329). In summary, although research on ethnic identity for sport fans is very limited, a strong relationship was found between sport consumers’ ethnic identity and sport consumption and orientation. Also, the differences found on the motivations for sport fans based on ethnicity, should indicate a strong relationship between sport fans’ motivation and ethnic identity. However, it is the goal of this investigation to examine this relationship.